Acknowledgements

1. An Introduction To The Problem Of Universals
2. Historical Overview..
A. A General Overview
B. Ancient Musings: From Socrates To The Neoplatonists
C. Medieval Debates: From Eriugena To William Of Ockham
3. A Modern Response
A. Reinterpreting The Past
B. Reflections
4. A Heterodox Hypostasis: Reality As...
A. A Universal
B. Unitary Sets
C. Synchronized Systems
5. Synthesis:A New Proposal

Bibliography and References

Appendices
A. Principles, Doctrines, and their Supporters
B. Common Medieval Terms and Concepts Defining Universals
C. Boethius's Attempt to Solve the Problem of Universals
D. Timeline of Classical and Neoplatonic Philosophers
E. A Timeline of Scholastic and Medieval Philosophers

Universals in this document are examined in their original medieval context. Idea(l)s, symbols, and objects or matter were reckoned as absolutes or hypostases exclusive or preeminant of one another. From the original context as a beginning point, the ontological and metaphysical status of universals are re-examined. This thesis supplies an alternative solution to the problem of universals in which all three elements mentioned above are rendered into a unified philosophical system with axioms, methods, and goals. Church, State, and Acadamia are denied as the source of authority regarding universals. The veritible efficacy of reality is asserted as the basis all epistemological and metaphysical claims and upon which all reliance should be placed.

This is about reconsidering medieval thought and reshaping today's thinking. The concepts of this work were slowly developed over 10 years, while the work itself was partially written in Riga, Latvia and in Ann Arbor, Michigan. This work is the result of independent and long-time research, and a quest for absolute and universal truths. Retracing the intellectual and cultural development of concepts and beliefs held in the world, a specific turning point was focused upon: the medieval era in Western Europe. The problem of universals is a fascinating paradox that was discovered and often discussed in the Europe's Middle Ages. Eastern scholarship has also addressed this problem in the Islamic, Hindu, Buddhist, and Toaist traditions. It concerns the nature of reality and its components. Essentially the problem could be re-asked as:

Is anything I know just a material thing, or a spiritual thing or in my mind? Is "cup" just the holder of my coffee, made of ceramic and bound to the laws of entropy? Or is it a function - like when I shape my hands into a cup for drinking water from a stream ? Could it be just a spiritual essence residing in eternity? Or is it just some mind-game or construct that I impose upon reality? Ultimately is it material, symbolic, or an idea(l)?

Resulting from this query isThe Problem of Universals Reconsidered. This investigation which was accepted as a thesis towards my MA by West Chester University's Philosophy Department. This problem I contemplated for some time, taking it with me to Latvia, the home of Kant's first publication of The Critique of Pure Reason..

    This document may be used for educational purposes by individuals in full or in part with permission. Please notify me if you are using this documant for classes, are linking to it, or simply have comments, corrections and/or criticisms.

    When transfering the document into html, slight typographical and formating changes have been made (plus some grammatical corrections) in this second edition.

May 1998: PHILOSOPHIA ANALYTICA IN POLONIA, maintained by doctoral candidates Piotr Lajeczko and Mariusz Grygianiecat from Warsaw University, Poland, link to this thesis.
February 1998: Morten Skovgaard, 3rd yr. student of Philosophy and Theory of Science from Roskilde University Center (Denmark), uses theis for group writing project.
Oct. 1997: full HTML version made available; editing and new image files
July. 1995: abstract of thesis placed online
May 1995: Final paper written and submitted for MA completion
Spring 1992: some input done at Riga LATVIA's Town Hall; more discussion and refinement.
Sept.1990: proposal and outline written
Spring 1986: "Eureka!" experience and concept hashed out in W.Chester, PA, USA